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Selected FIGURES from

A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology A Text/Laboratory Manual, Fourth Edition

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Chapter 1: Weather Analysis: The Tools of the Trade

Figure 1.1 : Earth's atmosphere from space

Figure 1.2 : Map of North America (courtesy of CIA)

Figure 1.3 : Latitude and longitude

Figure 1.4 : Polar stereographic projection of North America

Figure 1.5 : Mercator projection

Figure 1.6 : Time zones of the World (courtesy of CIA)

Figure 1.8 : Judging relative size

Figure 1.9 : Spatial and temporal scales of atmospheric phenomena

Figure 1.10 : Histogram of high temperatures

Figure 1.11 : Affect of clouds on summer high temperatures (satellite imagery courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 1.12 : Isoplething unveils a pattern

Figure 1.13a , Figure 1.13b : Perspective brings order from apparent disorder

Figure 1.16 : Rollerblading and isoplething

Figure 1.17 : Steps in isoplething

Figure 1.18 : Isoplething snowfall from the Blizzard of '96

Figure 1.19 : Topographic map of Vail

Figure 1.20 : Fronts, temperature gradients, and precipitation (radar data courtesy of NWS)

Figure 1.21 : An Automated Surface Observing System, or ASOS (courtesy of NWS)

Figure 1.23 : An unmanned buoy in the Gulf of Mexico (courtesy National Data Buoy Center)

Figure 1.24 : North America radiosonde launch sites

Figure 1.25 : The station model

Figure 1.26 : A compass

Figure 1.28 : An analyzed weather map (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 1.29 : Buoy data and hurricanes (satellite imagery courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 1.30 : Example meteogram from Pittsburgh

Chapter 2: The Global Ledger of Heat Energy

Figure 2.1 : An x-ray image of the Sun (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 2.2 : Oscillating electrons generate radiation

Figure 2.3 : Definition of wavelength

Figure 2.4 : The electromagnetic spectrum

Figure 2.5 : Spectrum of an orange (courtesy of Eugene Clothiaux)

Figure 2.6 : Measuring gamma radiation from the air

Figure 2.7a , Figure 2.7b : Minnesota flooding spring 2001 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 2.8 : Emission spectra of the Sun and Earth

Figure 2.10 : Even a tiny leaf emits radiation (courtesy of Charles Hosler)

Figure 2.11 : Dependence of radiation intensity on sun angle

Figure 2.14 : Possible fates of radiation

Figure 2.16 : Back-scattering by cloud droplets

Figure 2.17 : Path lengths of radiation through the atmosphere

Figure 2.18 : Radiation budget by latitude

Figure 2.19 : Incoming solar radiation budget

Figure 2.20 : Average vertical temperature profile

Figure 2.21a , Figure 2.21b : Temperature dependence on downwelling infrared radiation

Figure 2.22 : Absorptivity of atmospheric gases

Figure 2.23 : Carbon dioxide concentrations over time

Figure 2.24 : Near-surface temperature profiles on windy and calm nightsbr>

Figure 2.25 : Varying frost damage on a tall plant

Figure 2.27 : Schlieren photography captures convection

Figure 2.28 : Schlieren photography, part II

Figure 2.29 : An idealized eddy

Figure 2.30 : A mechanical eddy

Figure 2.31a , Figure 2.31b : Spectrum of skylight, and a blue sky (courtesy of National Park Service)

Figure 2.32 : The butterscotch-colored sky of Mars (courtesy of NASA)

EXTRA: Bubbling cumuliform clouds illustrate convection

Chapter 3: Global and Local Controllers of Temperature

Figure 3.1 : Average Dec-Jan-Feb global temperatures (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 3.2 : Earth/Sun positions by season

Figure 3.4 : Average monthly temperatures, Bhopal, India

Figure 3.6 : The Barrow Observatory (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.9a , Figure 3.9b : Annual temperature variability depends on many factors

Figure 3.11 : Tropopause heights by latitude

Figure 3.12 : Average tropopause temperature (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 3.13 : Heating of mountains

Figure 3.14 : Snow in the mountains in June (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.15 : Ocean currents of the world

Figure 3.16 : Gulf Stream from space (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.18 : Air mass source regions

Figure 3.19 : Types of fronts

Figure 3.21 : Temperature change behind a cold front

Figure 3.22a , Figure 3.22b : Advection and fronts

Figure 3.23 : Average date of first freeze south of Lake Erie

Figure 3.24 : Vineyards on a hillside

Figure 3.25 : The urban heat island of Philadelphia

Figure 3.26 : Geography surrounding El Paso, TX (map background courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 3.29 : Thermograph

Figure 3.30 : Cotton-region instrument shelter (courtesy of NOAA)

Chapter 4: The Role of Water in Weather

Figure 4.1 : Eye of Hurricane Ivan, 2004 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 4.3 : The hydrologic cycle

Figure 4.4 : Runoff dirties the rivers and bays after Hurricane Ivan (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 4.5 : Evaporational cooling in action

Figure 4.6a, Figure 4.6b : Annual average potential evaporation and annual average surface temperature (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 4.8 : Average precipitation rates across Africa and adjacent areas (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 4.10 : Inside the eye of Hurricane Isabel, 2003 (courtesy of Hurricane Research Division, NOAA)

Figure 4.11 : Evaporation and condensation

Figure 4.12 : Equilibrium vapor pressure dependence on temperature

Figure 4.15 : Fog forms in a classroom

Figure 4.16 : Comparison of sizes of various atmospheric particles

Figure 4.17a , Figure 4.17b : Comparison of hazy and relatively clear air masses

Figure 4.18 : Rising parcels expand and cool

Figure 4.19 : Making a cloud in a jar

Figure 4.20 : Convective clouds form due to uneven heating of the surface (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 4.21 : Definition of leeward and windward

Figure 4.22a , Figure 4.22b : California precipitation (courtesy of Oregon Climate Service) and topography (courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 4.23 : Fog in the Conyngham Valley of northeastern Pennsylvania

Figure 4.24 : Steam fog over a lake

Figure 4.26 : Contrails

Figure 4.27 : Contrails from space (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 4.28 : Typical variability of temperature and relative humidity

Figure 4.29 : Dependence of relative humidity on temperature

Figure 4.30 : Relationship between temperature, dew point, and relative humidity

Figure 4.33 : Dew point falls as eddies mix drier air toward surface

Figure 4.34 : Temperature and dew point variation ahead of and behind cold front

Figure 4.35 : Flat-bottomed "pancake" cumulus clouds

Figure 4.36 : High-based clouds form in relative dry low-level air

Figure 4.37 : Dew point as an estimate of overnight low

Figure 4.38c , Figure 4.38b , Figure 4.38c : Dew-point pattern (courtesy of Plymouth State University), radar (courtesy of WSI Corporation), and storm reports (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center) for severe weather outbreak in April, 2003

Figure 4.40 : Thick cumulonimbus clouds have dark bases

Figure 4.41 : A waterspout appears dark against a bright background (courtesy of U.S. Navy)

Figure 4.47 : Sample dry and moist parcels of air

Figure 4.55 : Precipitation/topography correlation in Washington state

Chapter 5: Satellite and Radar Imagery: Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere

Figure 5.1 : The "A" ring of Saturn (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.2 : Doppler radar (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.3 : Artist's rendition of a polar-orbiting satellite (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.4 : Orbits of geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites

Figure 5.5 : Example satellite image from a polar orbiter (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.6a , Figure 5.6b ,Figure 5.6c , Figure 5.6d : Visible, infrared, "negative" infrared, and water vapor satellite images of the same storm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.7 : Albedo increases as milk globules increase in water

Figure 5.8 : Rivers stand out from snow-covered ground on visible satellite image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.9 : River and forested regions stand out in visible satellite image (courtesy of NOAA and Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins)

Figure 5.10 : In a standard infrared image, cold objects appear dark (courtesy of FLIR Systems, Indigo Operations)

Figure 5.11 : Nighttime infrared image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.12a , Figure 5.12b ,Figure 5.12c : Visible, enhanced infrared, and enhanced water vapor satellite images of Hurricane Isabel (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.13 : Enhanced infrared image of space shuttle (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.14 : Full-disk water vapor image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.15 : Dependence of water vapor imagery appearance on column moisture content

Figure 5.16 : Water vapor imagery detects high-altitude dry air drawn into Hurricane Isidore (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.17 : Radar imagery at same time as Figure 5.6 satellite imagery (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 5.18 : Doppler radar sites in the lower 48 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.19 : Radar-estimated rainfall in parts of Texas, July 2, 2003 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.20 : Multisensor estimate of rainfall on July 13, 2004 (courtesy of Middle Atlantic River Forecast Center)

Figure 5.21 : "Wet hail" on radar (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.22 : Radar beam can miss low, shallow, snow-bearing clouds

Figure 5.24 : Misleading high reflectivities of "wet sleet" (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.25a , Figure 5.25b : Reflectivity and velocity mode radar images of tornadic thunderstorm near Oklahoma City (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.26 : The Doppler effect illustrated with a moving train

Figure 5.27 : Application of the Doppler effect to weather radar

Figure 5.28 : A wind profiler (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.29 : Data measured by a wind profiler (courtesy of NOAA)

Chapter 6: Surface Patterns of Pressure and Wind

Figure 6.2 : Fierce "November gales" took similar tracks through the Great Lakes in 1975 and 1998 (courtesy of Don Rolfson, National Weather Service)

Figure 6.3 : Pressure as the weight of air

Figure 6.4 : Schematic of a mercury barometer

Figure 6.5 : Range of measured sea-level pressures on earth

Figure 6.6 : Visible satellite image of Typhoon Tip, October 1979 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.7 : High resolution satellite imagery of Denver (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 6.8 : Air columns over low and high elevations

Figure 6.9 : Various of pressure with altitude

Figure 6.10 : Surface pressure compared to sea-level pressure

Figure 6.11 : "Correcting" station pressure to sea-level pressure

Figure 6.13 : Sea-level pressure analysis of record-setting high pressure system (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 6.14 : Troughs and ridges

Figure 6.15 : Water motions demonstrate the pressure gradient force

Figure 6.16 : Average sea-level pressure across the globe (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 6.17 : Pressure gradient force and gravity balance

Figure 6.19 : Fast-moving objects have great momentum (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 6.20 : Wind speed increases with height

Figure 6.21 : Centrifugal force at the amusement park

Figure 6.22 : Speed of rotation varies with latitude

Figure 6.23a , Figure 6.23b , Figure 6.23c : Lessons learned on a football field can be applied to the atmosphere

Figure 6.24 : The Coriolis force at work on north-south movement

Figure 6.25 : The Coriolis force at work on east-west movement

Figure 6.26a , Figure 6.26b : Sea-level pressure analysis and satellite imagery of Hurricanes Frances and Ivan, September 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.27 : Air flow around surface highs and lows

Figure 6.29 : Implications of surface convergence and divergence

Figure 6.30 : Cross section of a surface high and low pressure system

Figure 6.31 : Precipitation correlation with pressure systems

Figure 6.32a , Figure 6.32b : Satellite image of Hurricane Ivan (courtesy of NOAA), and sea-level pressure trace at Mobile, AL around landfall

Figure 6.33a , Figure 6.33b : Pressure "tide" on the Pacific Island of Nauru

Figure 6.34 : Fronts and the pressure pattern

Figure 6.35 : Cold front in a trough of low pressure

Figure 6.36 : Finding fronts on a weather map

Figure 6.37 : Upper-level convergence and divergence above surface highs and lows

Chapter 7: Upper-air Patterns of Pressure and Wind

Figure 7.1 : Upper-air and surface link

Figure 7.2a , Figure 7.2b : Schematic views of constant pressure surfaces

Figure 7.3a : Satellite image of the Big Island of Hawaii (courtesy of NASA

Figure 7.4 : A crumpled throw rug

Figure 7.5 : Vertical spacing of mandatory pressure levels

Figure 7.6 : Comparing high-altitude and low-altitude density

Figure 7.7 : A 500-mb constant pressure map (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 7.8 : Comparing cold and warm columns of air

Figure 7.9 : A balloon experiment

Figure 7.10 : Average 500-mb height dependence on latitude

Figure 7.11a , Figure 7.11b , Figure 7.11c : 500-mb heights relation to temperature

Figure 7.12a , Figure 7.12b : Meridional and zonal 500-mb patterns (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 7.13a , Figure 7.13b : Examples of 850-mb and 300-mb charts (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 7.14 : 500-mb chart with station models (courtesy of UCAR)

Figure 7.15a , Figure 7.15b : 300-mb heights and winds (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 7.16a , Figure 7.16b : Relation between heights and pressure

Figure 7.17 : Troughs and ridges on height and pressure surfaces

Figure 7.18a , Figure 7.18b , Figure 7.18c , Figure 7.18d : A parcel reaches geostrophic balance

Figure 7.19 : Evolution of velocity and Coriolis vectors in geostrophic flow

Figure 7.20a , Figure 7.20b , Figure 7.20c : Weather data at the surface, 850-mb, and 500-mb

Figure 7.21 : Buys-Ballot's Law

Figure 7.22 : Mount Everest from space (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 7.23 : Average 300-mb winds over Mt. Everest in early October (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 7.24 : Pressure gradient force at high altitudes

Figure 7.25 : Large and small height gradients at 500 mb

Figure 7.26a , Figure 7.26b : Relationship between 500-mb winds, heights and isotachs

Figure 7.27 : 250-mb heights and winds

Figure 7.28 : Vertical profile of winds shows a peak around 250 mb

Figure 7.29a , Figure 7.29b : North-south temperature contrasts lead to westerly winds increasing with altitude

Figure 7.30 : Temperatures stop decreasing with altitude at the tropopause, then begin to increase with altitude

Figure 7.31 : Westerly winds slow above tropopause level

Figure 7.32 : Temperatures at the 150-mb level

Figure 7.33 : Winds at 250 mb track the jet stream

Figure 7.34 : A typical 250-mb analysis

Figure 7.35 : Locating the mid-latitude jet stream

Figure 7.36 : The jet stream is not always continuous

Figure 7.37a , Figure 7.37b : Comparison of winter and summer jet streams

Figure 7.38b , Figure 7.38c : Locating the subtropical jet stream on 250-mb charts

Figure 7.39 : Example of a zonal flow

Figure 7.40a , Figure 7.40b : A high-amplitude flow, with associated temperature anomalies

Figure 7.41 : 500-mb analysis of a blocking high

Figure 7.42 : A rock in a stream acts as a block to the water

Figure 7.43a : Vertical wind shear can lead to clear air turbulence

Chapter 8: The Role of Stability in Weather

Figure 8.1 : Launch of a weather balloon and radiosonde (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 8.2 : NASA's Ultra-Long Duration balloon (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.3 : Balance between the pressure gradient force and gravity

Figure 8.4 : Average vertical velocity at 700 mb on December 28, 2004 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 8.6 : Buoyancy experiment in a bathtub

Figure 8.7 : Ascending parcels continue to rise as long as they are warmer than the environment

Figure 8.8 : Parcel in unstable equilbrium

Figure 8.9 : Parcel in stable equilibrium

Figure 8.11 : Rising unsaturated parcels cool at about 10oC per kilometer

Figure 8.12 : A graphical way to represent vertical temperature variations

Figure 8.13 : The lifting condensation level

Figure 8.14 : The energy staircase

Figure 8.15a , Figure 8.15b : Tracking the vertical changes in temperature in a rising parcel of air

Figure 8.16 : A conditionally unstable layer

Figure 8.17 : Radar cross section through Hurricane Bonnie (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.18 : Nocturnal inversion on a vertical temperature diagram

Figure 8.20 : NASA's ER-2 aircraft (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.21 : Simulation of dispersion of ground fog

Figure 8.22 : Superadiabatic lapse rate

Figure 8.23 : Meteogram showing evaporation cooling

Figure 8.24 : Cooling aloft destabilizes the troposphere

Figure 8.25a , Figure 8.25b : Cold air aloft generates thunderstorms

Figure 8.26 : Thunderstorms off California on December 28, 2004 (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 8.27 : Subsidence inversion forms east of a surface high-pressure system

Figure 8.28 : How a subsidence inversion forms

Figure 8.29a : "Pancake" cumulus

Figure 8.31 : Supercooled water experiment

Figure 8.32 : Computer simulation of the lattice structure of ice

Figure 8.33 : The Bergeron-Findeisen process, part I

Figure 8.34 : The Bergeron-Findeisen process, part II

Figure 8.35a : Bergeron-Findeisen in action, on a car windshield

Figure 8.36 : Three different kinds of snow crystals

Figure 8.39a , Figure 8.39b , Figure 8.39c : Stratiform clouds form by overrunning at a warm front

Figure 8.45 : A wintertime cumulonimbus cloud with an anvil produced a snow squall with thunder

Figure 8.49 : Enhanced infrared image of Hurricane Linda, September 12, 1997 (courtesy of CIMSS, University of Wisconsin, and NOAA)

Figure 8.50 : Smoke plume from Mount Etna (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.51 : Comparison of morning and nighttime behavior of a smoke plume

Figure 8.52a , Figure 8.52b : Mountain wave clouds (courtesy of CIMSS, University of Wisconsin, and NOAA)

Figure 8.53 : Altocumulus castellanous clouds

Figure 8.54 : Sunshine mixes the lower troposphere

Figure 8.56a , Figure 8.56b : Temperature inversion and light tracing in a superior mirage

Chapter 9: Thunderstorms

Figure 9.1 : Satellite image shows "numerous" thunderstorms (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.2 : A cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) cloud (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.3a , Figure 9.3b : Benjamin Franklin flies a kite (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.4 : One model of charge separation in a cumulonimbus cloud

Figure 9.5a : Charge distribution inside a thunderstorm: another possibility

Figure 9.6 : Cloud-to-ground lightning (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.7 : Lightning originating in the upper reaches of a thunderstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.8 : A red sprite (courtesy Dave Sentman, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska-Fairbanks)

Figure 9.9 : Evidence of lightning on Saturn (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.10 : Computing the distance between an observer and a lightning bolt

Figure 9.11 : Lightning fatalities by state, 1990-2003 (courtesy Ronald L. Holle, Holle Meteorology & Photography)

Figure 9.12 : Hair may stand on end before a lightning strike (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.13 : Heating destabilizes the low levels

Figure 9.14 : Lightning strikes the Empire State Building (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.15a , Figure 9.15b : Radar and sounding for an elevated convection case (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 9.16 : Climatology of worldwide lightning strikes (courtesy of NASA MSFC)

Figure 9.17 : Average number of days per year with a thunderstorm (courtesy of Oklahoma Climatological Survey)

Figure 9.18 : Formation of the sea breeze

Figure 9.19 : Weather implications of the sea-breeze front

Figure 9.20 : Satellite view of sea-breeze thunderstorms (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.21 : Converging sea-breeze fronts

Figure 9.22 : Elevated surfaces as sources of uneven heating

Figure 9.23a , Figure 9.23b , Figure 9.23c : Sequence of satellite images shows elevated convection (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.24 : The low-level environment's affect on cloud base height

Figure 9.25 : Thunderstorm Project marker (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.26 : Stages in an air-mass thunderstorm

Figure 9.27 : Role of entrainment in the growth of cumulus clouds

Figure 9.28 : A glaciated anvil atop a thunderstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.29 : Overshooting tops from above (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.31 : Radar detects the sea-breeze front thanks to insects (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.32 : Dust storms produced by gust fronts (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.33a , Figure 9.33b , Figure 9.33c , Figure 9.33d , Figure 9.33e , Figure 9.33f , Figure 9.33g , Figure 9.33h , Figure 9.33i , Figure 9.33j : Life cycle of an MCC (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.34 : Contribution of sloped terrain to the enhancement of a low-level jet

Figure 9.35a , Figure 9.35b , Figure 9.35c , Figure 9.35d : Satellite and radar images, and low-level jet contribution, to an MCC (courtesy of NOAA, University of Wisconsin/CIMMS, and WSI Corporation)

Figure 9.36 : Cross-sectional view of an MCC

Figure 9.39 : A map of precipitable water

Figure 9.40 : Four weather patterns conducive to flash flooding

Figure 9.41 : Average number of days per year with hail of at least 3/4" diameter (courtesy of Harold Brooks, National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 9.42 : Radar cross section of a hail-producing thunderstorm (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.43 : Cornfield decimated by large hail (courtesy of The Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources Cooperative Extension, University of Nebraska-Lincoln)

Figure 9.44 : Largest hailstone on record (courtesy of National Weather Service, Hastings, NE)

Figure 9.45 : Schematic of a microburst

Figure 9.46 : A WSR-88D radar damaged by microburst winds (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.47 : A microburst's threat to aviation

Figure 9.48 : A Doppler radar velocity image shows a microburst (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.51 : Ray tracing through a raindrop

Figure 9.53 : Following the light that makes a rainbow

EXTRA: Kite flying at beach illustrates sea breeze

Chapter 10: Tropical Weather, Part I: Patterns of Wind, Water and Weather

Figure 10.1 : The tropics and subtropics occupy half the earth's surface

Figure 10.2 : Annual variation of incoming solar and outgoing infrared radiation

Figure 10.3 : Average annual air temperatures (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.4 : Average daily high temperatures in St. Louis, MO and Bhopal, India

Figure 10.5 : Sea-surface temperature anomalies during the 1997 El Nino (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.6 : Wind rose from Rapid City, SD (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 10.7 : Wind rose from an ocean buoy in tropical Pacific just south of the equator

Figure 10.8 : Convergence of trade winds at the ITCZ

Figure 10.9 : Halley's Comet (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.10 : Hadley's model of the general circulation

Figure 10.11 : Idealized cross section of the Hadley cells

Figure 10.12 : Cloud clusters over the Atlantic Ocean (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.13 : The ITCZ often appears as a necklace of clouds in tropical regions (courtesy of SSEC, University of Wisconsin, and NOAA)

Figure 10.14 : ITCZ wanders into Southern Hemisphere in February (courtesy EUMETSAT/NERC/Dundee University)

Figure 10.15a , Figure 10.15b : Average position of the ITCZ in January and July (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.16 : Average monthly rainfall at Fortaleza, Brazil shows a wet season and a dry season

Figure 10.17 : Average annual sea-level pressure around the globe (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.18 : Poleward flowing air at high altitudes in the tropics hits a "roadblock" around 30 degrees latitude

Figure 10.19a , Figure 10.19b : Average position of Atlantic subtropical high during winter and summer (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.20 : Annual average precipitation rates (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.21 : Major deserts of the world

Figure 10.22 : Average wind direction during August 2004 over the tropical Pacific (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.23 : Snow caps on Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.24 : Average sea-level pressure over the Pacific in August 2004 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.25 : Why the trade winds achieve speeds faster than what the pressure gradient suggests

Figure 10.26 : Trade-wind cumulus (courtesy of NOAA's Hurricane Research Division)

Figure 10.27 : Average wind speeds and directions at 200 mb over Asia and the western Pacific (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.28 : The Tibetan Plateau from space (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.29 : A typical trajectory of a parcel moving poleward in the upper branch of the Hadley Cell during Northern Hemisphere winter

Figure 10.30a , Figure 10.30b : Average wind speeds and directions at 200 mb in winter and summer (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.31 : Average surface air temperature during June, July and August (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.32 : Average surface air temperature in May around India (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.33 : The summer monsoon is a gigantic sea breeze

Figure 10.34 : Running tally of rainfall at Ratnagiri, India, in 2004 and 2005 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.35 : Average start and end dates of Indian summer monsoon

Figure 10.36 : Average sea-level pressure across India and surroundings, June to August (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.37 : Average wind directions and speeds at 850 mb during June over Indian Ocean (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.38 : Satellite-based radar estimates, June 10-15, 2004, near India (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.39 : Thunderstorms erupt in Arizona in July 2001 during the summer monsoon (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.40 : The Ekman spiral

Figure 10.41 : The Ekman transport

Figure 10.42 : Average annual wind directions and speeds across the tropical Pacific (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.43 : Sea-surface heights and temperatures across the tropical Pacific, January 1997 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.44 : Annual average sea-surface temperatures across the tropical Pacific (courtesy of the Climate Diagnotics Center)

Figure 10.45 : Sea-surface heights and temperatures across the tropical Pacific, November 1997 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.46 : The Walker Circulation during El Nino and non-El Nino conditions

Figure 10.47 : Smoke from fires over Indonesia in September 1997 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.48 : Temperature anomalies at 400 mb from January to March, 1998 (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.49 : Average wind directions and speeds at 200 mb from January to March, 1998 (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 10.50a , Figure 10.50b : Typical large-scale temperature and precipitation anomalies during an El Nino (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.51a , Figure 10.51b : Teleconnections in temperature in precipitation in the U.S. during an El Nino (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.52 : Closed cell and open cell convection over the Atlantic Ocean (courtesy of EUMETSAT)

Chapter 11: Tropical Weather, Part II: Hurricanes

Figure 11.1 : Visible satellite image of rare South Atlantic hurricane, March 2004 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.2 : Various satellite images of Hurricane Isabel, September 2003 (courtesy of NASA/NOAA)

Figure 11.3 : Track of Hurricane Isabel (courtesy of Ray Sterner and Stev Babin, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 11.4 : Breeding grounds for tropical cyclones

Figure 11.5a , Figure 11.5b : Similarities between a spiral galaxy and a hurricane (Jeanne, 2004) (courtesy of NASA/NOAA)

Figure 11.6 : Visible satellite images of Typhoons Parma and Ketsana, October 2003 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.7 : Average sea-surface temperatures in the Atlantic, June-November (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.8 : Climatological hurricane frequency by day

Figure 11.9 : Average September sea-surface temperatures in the Atlantic (courtesy of the Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.10 : Radar image of Hurricane Charley, August 2004 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 11.11 : Sea-surface temperatures in the Gulf, August 12, 2004, before Charley's landfall (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.12 : Visible satellite image of Hurricane Nora, September 1997 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.13 : Sea-surface temperature decreases related to passage of Hurricane Nora, October 1, 1997 (courtesy of Climate Diagostics Center)

Figure 11.14 : Air motions around the eye of a hurricane

Figure 11.15 : Enhanced infrared image of Hurricane Isabel, September 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.16 : Water vapor images of Hurricane Isabel show its weakening from September 14 to 16, 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.17 : Low-level circulation of Tropical Storm Nicholas exposed, October 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.18a , Figure 11.18b : 250-mb and 850-mb winds in the vicinity of Tropical Storm Nicholas (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.19 : Climatology average wind shear ove the Atlantic, August 15 to October 15 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.20 : Tropical cyclone frequency in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (courtesy of Chris Cantrell, Joint Typhoon Warning Center)

Figure 11.21a , Figure 11.21b : Visible satellite image and winds associated with Typhoon Vamei, which formed unusually close to the equator in December 2001 (courtesy of NASA/NOAA)

Figure 11.22 : 925-mb heights on August 31, 2004, detect the easterly wave that would become Hurricane Ivan (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.23 : Hurricanes Ivan and the remnants of Hurricane Frances on a infrared satellite image, September 7, 2004 (courtesy of Dundee Satellite Receiving Station)

Figure 11.24 : Cluster of thunderstorms associated with an easterly wave (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.25 : Average 600-mb winds during August, showing the Middle Level African Easterly Jet (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.26 : How easterly waves form on the cyclonic shear side of the Middle Level African Easterly Jet

Figure 11.27 : Typical surface temperature pattern in North Africa in August (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.28 : Average 600-mb heights during August over Africa and the eastern Atlantic (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.29 : Average 850-200 mb wind shear, February to April, over South America and the South Atlantic (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.30 : Average sea-surface temperature, February to April, in the South Atlantic (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.31 : 500-mb analyses showing conditions that helped form the unusual March 2004 South Atlantic hurricane (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.32 : Tropical Storm Ana, April 2003 (courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University, and NASA/NOAA

Figure 11.33 : Computer model simulation of the 3D structure of a hurricane

Figure 11.34 : Air spiraling into a hurricane speeds up to conserve angular momentum

Figure 11.35a , Figure 11.35b : Satellite-derived radar images of Cyclone Ingrid near Australia, March 2005 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.36 : Hot towers around the eye of Hurricane Bonnie, August 1998 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.37 : Isotachs showing winds around a mature Category-5 hurricane

Figure 11.38 : Hurricane Isabel's "pinwheel" eye capture on visible satellite imagery, September 2003 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.39 : Balance of forces near the eye wall

Figure 11.40 : The stadium effect

Figure 11.41a , Figure 11.41b : Tropical Cyclone Gafilo, March 2004 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.42 : Isobar packing near the center of a hurricane

Figure 11.43 : Visible satellite image captures the high-altitude outflow of Hurricane Isabel, September 10, 2003 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.44 : 3D views of wind structure of a hurricane

Figure 11.45 : Radar image of Ivan making landfall, September 16, 2004 (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 11.46 : Paths of Hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan and Jeanne, 2004

Figure 11.47 : Hurricane Ivan's track with respect to subtropical high pressure in place at the time (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.48 : 500-mb winds, September 22, 2004, near Hurricane Jeanne (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 11.49 : Track of Hurricane Isabel, September 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.50 : Right front quadrant of a hurricane

Figure 11.51 : Damage from storm surge of Hurricane Isabel on the Outer Banks (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.52 : Floodin on the grounds of the U.S. Naval Academy from surge off Chesapeake Bay (courtesy of U.S. Naval Academy)

Figure 11.53 : Damage to a home in Punta Gorda, FL, from Hurricane Charley in August 2004 (courtesy of FEMA)

Figure 11.54 : Multi-sensor estimate of rainfall from remants of Hurricane Frances over the mid-Atlantic, September 2004 (courtesy of the Middle Atlantic River Forecast Center)

Figure 11.56 : Track of Hurricane Andrew, August 1992

Figure 11.57 : Multi-channel composite satellite image of Hurricane Andrew (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.58 : Infrared satellite image of Hurricane Andrew at landfall, August 24, 1992 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.59 : Aerial view of damage from Hurricane Andrew (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.60 : Radar image of Hurricane Andrew making landfall, August 24, 1992 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.61 : Tree damage from Andrew (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.62 : Power of Andrew's winds (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.63 : Average annual track errors of National Hurricane Center Forecasts of Tropical Storms and Hurricanes, 1970-2004 (courtesy of National Hurricane Center)

Figure 11.64 : The "cone of uncertainty" in a hurricane track forecast (courtesy of National Hurricane Center)

U.S. Landfalling Hurricanes : Landfalling Hurricanes in the U.S., 1950 to 2004 (courtesy of National Climate Data Center)

Chapter 12: Mid-Latitude I: Linking Surface and Upper-Air Patterns

Figure 12.1 : Time lapse exposure of Gemini South and the Southern Hemisphere sky

Figure 12.2 : Highs and low work to reduce north-south temperature contrasts

Figure 12.3a , Figure 12.3b : Comparison of circulation around weak and strong lows

Figure 12.4a , Figure 12.4b : Highs and lows require compensating divergence/convergence at upper levels

Figure 12.5 : Upper level conditions favorable for surface high and low pressure

Figure 12.6 : The local vertical, and spin imparted about the local vertical by the earth's rotation

Figure 12.9 : Air parcles around highs and lows spin about a local vertical axis

Figure 12.11 : Ice skaters control their rate of spin by pulling in and spreading out the arms

Figure 12.12 : How parcels acquire curvature and shear vorticity

Figure 12.13 : Areas of upper-level convergence and divergence with respect to vorticity maxima and minima

Figure 12.14 : Locations of surface highs and lows with respect to areas of upper-level divergence and convergence

Figure 12.16 : Definition of wavelength

Figure 12.17 : Short and long wave troughs and ridges

Figure 12.18a , Figure 12.18b : Finding a short wave in a long wave

Figure 12.19 : Track of the "Storm of the Century" - March 12-14, 1993

Figure 12.20 : 300-mb and surface analyses, 00Z March 14, 1993

Figure 12.21 : Isotachs representing a jet streak at 300 mb, with exit and entrance regions

Figure 12.22a , Figure 12.22b , Figure 12.22c : Areas of vorticity and upper-level convergence and divergence associated with a jet streak

Figure 12.23 : Water vapor image of Florida and vicinity, February 22, 1998, just before a major tornado outbreak

Figure 12.24 : Stronger lows tend to form with curvier upper-air patterns

Chapter 13: Mid-Latitude II: The Cyclone Model

Figure 13.1 : Breeding grounds and spark for a surface low-pressure area

Figure 13.2a , Figure 13.2b : Plan and cross-section view of a typical mid-latitude low and its cold and warm fronts

Figure 13.3 : Self-development process of a low

Figure 13.4 : Upper-level divergence and temperature advection help control surface pressure tendencies

Figure 13.5 : Upper-level trough changes its orientation as development proceeds

Figure 13.6 : Cyclone in occlusion stage

Figure 13.7 : Life cycle of a mid-latitude low

Figure 13.8a , Figure 13.8b : Cirrus clouds

Figure 13.10 : Conveyor belts of a mid-latitude cyclone

Figure 13.11 : Cloud patterns associated with a strong mid-latitude cyclone

Figure 13.12 : Cold front placement with regard to pressure and temperature patterns

Figure 13.13 : A cold front acting as an anafront

Figure 13.14 : The dry conveyor belt

Figure 13.15 : Visible satellite image of Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude cyclone shows coils of dry air wrapping toward the center (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 13.17 : Ice crystals in the shape of hexagonal plates

Figure 13.18 : Conditions for a halo to form

Chapter 14: Mid-Latitude III: Spawning Severe Weather

Figure 14.1 : Destruction from a powerful tornado near Oklahoma City on May 3, 1999 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Norman, OK)

Figure 14.2a , Figure 14.2b : Aerial and ground view along the path of the May 3, 1999 tornado near Oklahoma City (courtesy of National Weather Service, and Dan Miller, NOAA)

Figure 14.3 : Tornado near Stecker, OK, May 3, 1999 (courtesy of National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 14.4 : Examples of severe thunderstorm and tornado watches (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 14.5 : Ingredients of a classic severe thunderstorm outbreak in the spring in the Central Plains

Figure 14.6 : Updraft can be tilted in a wind-shear environment

Figure 14.7a , Figure 14.7b : Satellite and radar image of a squall line (courtesy of NOAA and WSI)

Figure 14.8 : Synoptic conditions and internal structure associated with a squall line

Figure 14.9 : Wind pattern of a typical microburst

Figure 14.10 : Evolution of a bow echo

Figure 14.11 : Schematic radar signature of a derecho

Figure 14.12a , Figure 14.12b : Derecho on radar on August 26, 2003, and severe weather reports caused by the derecho (courtesy of WSI, and the Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 14.13 : Setup for warm-season derecho

Figure 14.14 : Role of continental tropical air in a tornado outbreak

Figure 14.15 : Temperature and dewpoint sounding on May 3, 1999, over central Oklahoma

Figure 14.16 : The role of a layer of relatively warm, dry air in a severe weather outbreak

Figure 14.17 : Satellite view of tornadic supercells over central Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.18 : Larko's Triangle

Figure 14.19 : The synoptic pattern on May 3, 1999

Chapter 15: A Closer Look at Tornadoes

Figure 15.3 : Path of the Hallam, NE tornado of May 22, 2004 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Omaha, NE)

Figure 15.4 : Tornado Alley

Figure 15.5 : Area-weighted average annual tornadoes, by state, 1950-95 (data courtesy of Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 15.6 : Tornadoes around the world (courtesy of Dr. Greg Forbes)

Figure 15.7 : U.S. tornadoes by month

Figure 15.8 : Plan view of a supercell thunderstorm

Figure 15.9 : Formation of a "horizontal roll"

Figure 15.10 : Horizontal role gets tilted vertically

Figure 15.11 : Mesocyclone formation

Figure 15.12 : Concentration of spin as a column contracts

Figure 15.15 : Plan view of precipitation shield of a fully developed supercell thunderstorm

Figure 15.16a ,Figure 15.16b , Figure 15.16c : Sequence of Doppler radar reflectivity images of a tornadic thunderstorm (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.17a , Figure 15.17b : Doppler radar imagery of tornadic supercell near Oklahoma City on May 3, 1999, on reflectivity and velocity modes (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.18 : A Doppler on Wheels (courtesy of Paul Markowski)

Figure 15.19a , Figure 15.19b : Plan view and photograph of a supercell thunderstorm

Figure 15.24 : Instrument package called TOTO used in the 1980s (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 15.26 : A multiple vortex tornado (courtesy of National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 15.27 : Cycloid pattern marks the damage path of some multiple vortex tornadoes (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.28 : Damage paths and Fujita-scale assessments of May 3, 1999 tornadoes (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.29 : Damage from the 1925 Tri-State tornado (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 15.30 : Locations of U.S. F5 tornadoes since 1950 (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 15.31 : F5 tornado damage (courtesy of National Severe Storms Laboratory, Chuck Doswell)

Figure 15.32 : U.S. tornadoes by year

Figure 15.33 : Weak spots on a house in a tornado

Figure 15.34 : May 31, 1985 tornado tracks (courtesy of Pennsylvania State Climatologist)

Figure 15.37a , Figure 15.37b : Evidence of dust devils on Mars (courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science System)

Figure 15.38 : Waterspout off the Florida Keys (courtesy of NOAA Photo Library, Dr. Joseph Golden)

Figure 15.39 : A fire whirl (courtesy of United States Marine Corps)

Chapter 16: Mid-Latitude IV: Winter Weather

Figure 16.3 : Various ways that snow crystals can be altered as they fall

Figure 16.4a , Figure 16.4b : Two examples of graupel, or snow pellets

Figure 16.5a ,Figure 16.5b , Figure 16.5c : Vertical temperature profiles for sleet and freezing rain

Figure 16.6a , Figure 16.6b : Setup for an historic ice storm

Figure 16.7 : Precipitation distribution around a classic cold-season mid-latitude cyclone

Figure 16.8 : Typical January positions of mid-latitude and subtropical jet streams

Figure 16.9 : Jet stream configuration for historic President's Day storm of 1979 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.10 : Typical amplified jet stream patterns

Figure 16.11 : Snowfall records during the winter of 1995-96

Figure 16.12 : Climatological storm tracks over the U.S.

Figure 16.14 : 300-mb pattern On March 8, 2005, showed subtropical jet linking with mid-latitude jet (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 16.15 : Rapid deepening East Coast storm in March 2005

Figure 16.16a , Figure 16.16b : East Coast "Blizzard of January 1996" (courtesy of NOAA and Penn State Weather Communications Group)

Figure 16.17a , Figure 16.17b : Cold-air damming setup (topographic map courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 16.18a , Figure 16.18b : Setup and ice accumulation from historic December 2002 ice storm in the southeast (courtesy of National Weather Service, Raleigh, NC)

Figure 16.19 : In May, the Great Lakes are islands of stability (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.20 : Average seasonal snowfall around the Great Lakes

Figure 16.22 : Terrain adds to the lift and subsequent snowfalls from lake-effect snow

Figure 16.23 : Lake-effect snow tends to form in discrete bands

Figure 16.24 : Visible satellite image showing lake-effect snowbands off Lakes Superior and Michigan (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.25 : Radar shows a record-setting lake-effect snow band pounding Buffalo, NY, in December 1995 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 16.26 : Lake-effect snow off Lake Erie in northeastern Ohio and northwestern Pennsylvania (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 16.27 : Satellite image shows discrete bands of lake-effect snow from Lake Superior (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.28 : Ocean-effect snow captured on radar over Cape Cod (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 16.29a , Figure 16.29b : Large snowfall gradients with the snowstorm of December 30, 2000 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 16.30 : Visible satellite image captures narrow swath of snow in the mid-Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.31a , Figure 16.31b : Updated wind chill values introduced by the NWS during the 2001-02 winter, and a comparison of the old and the new values (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 16.32 : Results of a devastating 1888 ice storm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.33 : Ice build-up on an aircraft's wings (courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration)

Figure 16.34 : Checking the structure and strength of a deep snowpack in the Cascades (courtesy of Tim Kirk, USDA Forest Service)

Figure 16.35 : Track of the Superstorm of March 1993

Figure 16.36a , Figure 16.36b : Evolution of jet stream pattern prior to Superstorm of March 1993 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 16.37 : Enhanced infrared satellite image of the March 1993 Superstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.38 : Lightning illuminates the squall line of tornadic thunderstorms that accompanied the March 1993 Superstorm through Florida (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.39 : Sea-level pressure pattern shows rapid intensification of the March 1993 Superstorm

Figure 16.40 : Snowfall from the March 1993 Superstorm

Figure 16.41 : The storm and its aftermath on visible satellite imagery (courtesy of Hank Brandli and NOAA)

Chapter 17: Mid-Latitude V: Numerical Weather Prediction

Figure 17.1 : A pattern that would favor a hurricane landfall along the East Coast

Figure 17.2 : A pattern that would favor a severe weather outbreak on the Plains

Figure 17.3b : A two-dimensional grid of points

Figure 17.4 : A three-dimensional grid of points

Figure 17.5 : A supercomputer used for numerical weather prediction at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 17.6 : Example of a four-panel prog

Figure 17.7 : Time code from a four-panel prog

Figure 17.8 : The 500-mb panel from a four-panel prog

Figure 17.9 : The sea-level pressure and 1000-500-mb thickness panel from a four-panel prog

Figure 17.10 : Estimating winds from the sea-level pressure and 1000-500 mb thickness panel

Figure 17.11 : Comparison of thickness in a warm and cold air mass

Figure 17.12a , Figure 17.12b : Example of an analyzed sea-level pressure and 1000-500 mb thickness pane.

Figure 17.13a , Figure 17.13b , Figure 17.13c , Figure 17.13d : Comparison of computer model forecasts and observed satellite (courtesy of NOAA) and radar imagery (courtesy of WSI)

Figure 17.14 : Resolution issues regarding the use of a grid in numerical modeling

Figure 17.15 : Lower-right panel of the four-panel prog

Figure 17.16a , Figure 17.16b , Figure 17.16c , Figure 17.16d : A four-panel prog from the GFS model

Figure 17.17 : Infrared satellite image of a classic East Coast snowstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 17.18 : Characteristic weather map during the Southwest summer monsoon

Figure 17.19a , Figure 17.19b : Example of long-range progs from the GFS model

Figure 17.20 : Meridional and zonal flow at 500 mb

Figure 17.21 : Example of diplaying ensemble forecasts in a "spaghetti plot" (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 17.22 : Relative importance of various methods in 4-10 day forecasts and monthly to seasonal forecasts

Figure 17.23 : The Climate Prediction Center temperature outlook for the summer of 2005 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 17.24 : Climatological risk of various temperature extremes during winter when an El Nino is in progress (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 17.25a , Figure 17.25b : The phases of the NAO

Chapter 18: The Human Impact on Weather and Climate

Figure 18.1a , Figure 18.1b : Earth from space, at night (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.3 : Satellite view of soot-darkened snow near Troisk, in Siberia (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.4 : Precipitation departure from average, April-June 1988 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 18.5a ,Figure 18.5b : The Mauna Loa observatory, and the Keeling curve(data from http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm, image courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.6 : Drilling site for Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (courtesy of Michael Morrison, University of New Hampshire)

Figure 18.7 : Annual global carbon emissions from fossil-fule burning (data from http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm)

Figure 18.8 : Smoke and haze from fires over central Africa (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.9 : Principle reservoirs of carbon and exchanges between reservoirs

Figure 18.10 : Time series of atmospheric methane (data from CMDL, http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccgg/iadv/)

Figure 18.12 : Average annual temperature trend in Central Park, New York City

Figure 18.13 : Average annual temperature trend in Albany, NY

Figure 18.14 : View of Central Park (courtesy of National Weather Service, Upton, NY)

Figure 18.15 : Surface weather observing stations, a global view

Figure 18.16 : Time series of global surface average air temperature since the mid 1850s (data from http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/temperature/)

Figure 18.17a , Figure 18.17b : Satellite images of Mount Kilimanjaro, taken seven years apart, show reduction in ice on the mountain (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.18 : The Planet Venus (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.19 : Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and average air temperatures, derived from Vostok ice core (data from Trends '93: A Compendium of Data on Global Change)

Figure 18.20 : Stratospheric aerosols visible from satellite imagery, after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo (courtesy of Pat McCormick, NASA)

Figure 18.21 : Global average temperature variations in the lower troposphere and lower stratosphere, surrounding the eruption of Mount Pinatubo (data from Trends '93: A Compendium of Data on Global Change)

Figure 18.22 : Ash plume from Mount Etna, October 2002 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.23 : Trend in October average ozone over Halley Bay, Antarctic (data from Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994)

Figure 18.24 : Average stratospheric ozone levels in October, 1979 to 1995 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.25 : Average distribution of ozone with altitude in the troposphere and stratosphere

Figure 18.26 : Annual releases of CFC-11 and CFC-12 (data from http://afeas.org/prodsales_download.html)

Figure 18.27 : Steps that lead to ozone destruction by CFCs

Figure 18.28 : Polar stratospheric clouds (courtesy of Lamont Poole, NASA)

Figure 18.29 : Measurements of ozone and chlorine monoxide inside and outside the ozone hole (data from Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994)

Figure 18.30 : Stratospheric ozone levels on October 6, 2004 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.31 : Trends in stratospheric ozone from 1980 to 2000, as a function of latitude (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.32 : Average lower stratospheric temperature since 1958 (data from http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/temp/angell/data.html)

Figure 18.33 : The Ultraviolet (UV) Index

Figure 18.34 : A wall of dust approaches a Kansas town in 1935 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.35 : Haze from biomass burning over the Amazon (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.36a ,Figure 18.36 : Snowcover in the wake of the President's Day snowstorm of 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.37 : View of deforestation in the Amazon (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.38 : The urban heat island of Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN, visible on satellite imagery (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.39 : High-resolution infrared satellite image of downtown Atlanta, GA (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.40 : Distribution of cloud-to-ground lightning strikes around Houston, TX, from 1989 to 2001 (courtesy of the Lightning Project at Texas A&M University)

Figure 18.42 : Why sunsets and sunrises are reddish