Online Images for: A World of Weather

Selected FIGURES from

A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology A Text/Laboratory Manual, Fifth Edition

Go to Chapter: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 18

NOTE: All images not in the public domain are subject to copyright. They may be used in the classroom for instructional purposes, but they may not be posted on the World Wide Web or used for any publication without the written consent of Lee Grenci, Jon Nese and David Babb.

Chapter 1: Weather Analysis: The Tools of the Trade

Figure 1.1 : Earth's atmosphere from space (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 1.2 : Map of North America (courtesy of the CIA)

Figure 1.3 : Latitude and longitude

Figure 1.4 : Polar stereographic projection of North America

Figure 1.5 : Mercator projection

Figure 1.6 : Time zones of the World (courtesy of CIA)

Figure 1.7 : Judging relative size

Figure 1.8 : Spatial and temporal scales of atmospheric phenomena

Figure 1.9 : : Histogram of high temperatures

Figure 1.10 : Effect of clouds on summer high temperatures (satellite imagery courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 1.11a ,Figure 1.11b : Isoplething unveils a pattern

Figure 1.12a , Figure 1.12b : Perspective brings order from apparent disorder

Figure 1.13: Plan and cross section views

Figure 1.15 : Rollerblading and isoplething

Figure 1.16 : Steps in isoplething

Figure 1.17a ,Figure 1.17b : Isoplething snowfall from the Blizzard of '96

Figure 1.18 : Topographic map of Vail

Figure 1.19 : Fronts, temperature gradients, and precipitation (radar data courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 1.20 : An Automated Surface Observing System, or ASOS (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 1.22 : An unmanned buoy in the North Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard)

Figure 1.23 : North America radiosonde launch sites

Figure 1.24 : Template for a simplified surface station model

Figure 1.25 : Drops of dew on a flower (released into the public domain by the photographer via Wikipedia)

Figure 1.26 : A compass

Figure 1.27 : Sample station model

Figure 1.28 : An analyzed weather map (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 1.29 : Recent additions to the buoy network (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 1.30 : Example meteogram from Pittsburgh

Chapter 2: The Global Ledger of Heat Energy

Figure 2.1 : An x-ray image of the Sun (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 2.2 : Oscillating electrons generate radiation

Figure 2.3 : The electromagnetic spectrum

Figure 2.4 : Spectrum of an orange (data courtesy of Dr. Eugene Clothiaux)

Figure 2.5 : Measuring gamma radiation from the air

Figure 2.6a ,Figure 2.6b : Snowpack and flooding in February 2008 (courtesy of the National Weather Service, Milwaukee, WI)

Figure 2.7 : Emission spectra of the Sun and Earth

Figure 2.8 : Dependence of radiation intensity on sun angle

Figure 2.10 : Even a tiny leaf emits radiation (courtesy of Charles Hosler)

Figure 2.13 : Possible fates of radiation

Figure 2.15 : Back-scattering by cloud droplets

Figure 2.16 : Path lengths of radiation through the atmosphere

Figure 2.17 : Radiation budget by latitude

Figure 2.18 : Incoming solar radiation budget

Figure 2.19a , Figure 2.19b : Surface temperature dependence on downwelling infrared radiation

Figure 2.20 : Absorptivity of atmospheric gases

Figure 2.21 : Carbon dioxide concentrations over time

Figure 2.22 : Near-surface temperature profiles on windy and calm nightsbr>

Figure 2.23 : Varying frost damage on a tall plant

Figure 2.25 : Schlieren photography captures convection

Figure 2.26 : Schlieren photography, part II

Figure 2.27 : An idealized eddy

Figure 2.28 : A mechanical eddy

Figure 2.29 : Spectrum of skylight, and a blue sky (data courtesy of Dr. Eugene Clothiaux, image courtesy of the National Park Service)

Figure 2.30 : The butterscotch-colored sky of Mars (courtesy of NASA)

Chapter 3: Global and Local Controllers of Temperature

Figure 3.1 : Average Dec-Jan-Feb global temperatures (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.2 : Earth/Sun positions by season

Figure 3.3 : Time lapse photograph of sky illustrates star trails (courtesy of the Gemini Observatory / AURA)

Figure 3.5 : Average monthly high temperatures and precipitation at Bhopal, India

Figure 3.6a , Figure 3.6b , Figure 3.6c : Average temperatures and diurnal range, January 1979 (images courtesy of Moustafa Chahine, JPL)

Figure 3.7 : The Barrow Observatory (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.8 : Number of hours per day that sun is above the horizon in Barrow, AK

Figure 3.10a , Figure 3.10b : Average monthly temperatures at several U.S. cities

Figure 3.12 : Average vertical temperature variation and tropopause heights, by latitude

Figure 3.13 : Average tropopause temperature (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.14 : Heating of mountain slopes

Figure 3.15 : Snow in the mountains in June (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.16 : Gulf Stream from space (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.17 : Ocean currents of the world

Figure 3.19 : Boundaries between air masses

Figure 3.20 : Air mass source regions

Figure 3.21 : Types of fronts

Figure 3.22 : Relatively large temperature and dew point gradients near a front

Figure 3.23a , Figure 3.23b : Temperature and dew point changes associated with the passage of a front

Figure 3.24a & b , Figure 3.24c : Advection and fronts

Figure 3.25 : Vineyards on a hillside

Figure 3.26 : The urban heat island of Philadelphia

Figure 3.27 : Geography surrounding El Paso, TX (map background courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 3.28 : A liquid-in-glass thermometer

Figure 3.30 : A thermograph

Figure 3.31 : Cotton-region instrument shelter (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 3.32 : Locations of record temperatures highs and lows on each continent

Chapter 4: The Role of Water in Weather

Figure 4.1 : Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf of Mexico, August 2005 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 4.3 : The hydrologic cycle

Figure 4.4 : Runoff dirties the rivers and bays after Hurricane Ivan (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 4.5 : Evaporational cooling in action

Figure 4.6a, Figure 4.6b : Annual average potential evaporation and average maximum temperatures in 2007 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 4.8 : Average precipitation rates across Africa and adjacent areas (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 4.10 : Inside the eye of Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of Hurricane Research Division, NOAA)

Figure 4.11 : Evaporation and condensation

Figure 4.12 : Equilibrium vapor pressure dependence on temperature

Figure 4.14 : Fog forms in a classroom

Figure 4.16 : Comparison of sizes of various atmospheric particles

Figure 4.17a , Figure 4.17b : Comparison of hazy and relatively clear air masses

Figure 4.18 : Rising parcels expand and cool

Figure 4.20 : Making a cloud in a bottle

Figure 4.21 : Convective clouds form due to uneven heating of the surface (courtesy of National Weather Service, Huntsville, AL)

Figure 4.22 : Definition of leeward and windward

Figure 4.23a , Figure 4.23b : California precipitation (courtesy of Oregon Climate Service) and topography (courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 4.24 : Fog in the Conyngham Valley of northeastern Pennsylvania

Figure 4.25 : Steam fog over a lake

Figure 4.26a ,Figure 4.26b : Formation of a mixing cloud

Figure 4.27 : Contrails

Figure 4.28 : Contrails from space (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 4.29 : Typical variability of temperature and relative humidity during a day

Figure 4.30 : Dependence of relative humidity on temperature

Figure 4.31 : Relationship between temperature, dew point, and relative humidity

Figure 4.33 : A map of isodrosotherms (courtesy of Robert Hart, coolwx.com)

Figure 4.34 : Dew point falls as eddies mix drier air toward surface

Figure 4.35 : Temperature and dew point variation ahead of and behind cold front

Figure 4.36 : Flat-bottomed "pancake" cumulus clouds

Figure 4.38 : Dew point as an estimate of overnight low

Figure 4.39a ,Figure 4.39b , Figure 4.39c : Dew-point pattern (courtesy of Plymouth State University), radar reflectivity, and storm reports (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center) for severe weather outbreak in April, 2003

Figure 4.40 : Rainfall reports for June 7, 2008 (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 4.41 : The standard National Weather Service rain gauge (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 4.42 : A tipping bucket rain gauge (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 4.44 : Thick cumulonimbus clouds have dark bases

Figure 4.45 : Scattering experiments in water

Figure 4.46 : A waterspout appears dark against a bright background (courtesy of U.S. Navy)

Chapter 5: Satellite and Radar Imagery: Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere

Figure 5.1 : The "A" ring of Saturn (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.2 : Doppler radar (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.3 : Artist's rendition of a polar-orbiting satellite (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.4 : Orbits of geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites

Figure 5.5a , Figure 5.5b : Views from GOES-East and GOES-West (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.7 : View from a polar orbiter (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.8a , Figure 5.8b ,Figure 5.8c , Figure 5.8d : Visible, infrared, "negative" infrared, and water vapor satellite images of the same storm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.9 : Rivers stand out from snow-covered ground on visible satellite image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.10 : River and forested regions stand out in visible satellite image (courtesy of NOAA and Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins)

Figure 5.11 : Composite nighttime visible satellite image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.12 : In a standard infrared image, cold objects appear dark (courtesy of FLIR Systems, Indigo Operations)

Figure 5.13 : An infrared satellite image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.14a , Figure 5.14b ,Figure 5.14c : Visible, color-enhanced infrared, and color-enhanced water vapor satellite images of Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.15 : Enhanced infrared image of space shuttle (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 5.16a , Figure 5.16b : Comparison of water vapor and infrared images (courtesy of EUMETSAT)

Figure 5.17 : Dependence of water vapor imagery appearance on column moisture content

Figure 5.18 : Water vapor imagery of Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.19 : A water vapor image (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.20 : Radar imagery from February 5, 2008

Figure 5.21 : Pacific typhoon on radar, circa 1944 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.22 : Doppler radar sites in the lower 48 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.23 : Multi-sensor rainfall estimate for 24-hour period ending June 5, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.24 : Multi-sensor rainfall estimate for 30-day period ending June 16, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.27 : Radar beam overshooting shallow clouds

Figure 5.28 : Misleading high reflectivities of "wet sleet" (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.30 : Reflectivity image of tornadic thunderstorm in Iowa, May 25, 2008 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.31a , Figure 5.31b : Reflectivity and velocity image of tornadic thunderstorm in Iowa, May 25, 2008 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 5.33 : The Doppler effect illustrated with a moving train

Figure 5.34 : Radar reflectivity and radar schematic of classic rotating thunderstorm

Figure 5.35 : Application of the Doppler effect to weather radar

Figure 5.36 : A wind profiler (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 5.37: Data measured by a wind profiler (courtesy of NOAA)

Chapter 6: Surface Patterns of Pressure and Wind

Figure 6.2 : Fierce "November gales" took similar tracks through the Great Lakes in 1975 and 1998 (courtesy of Don Rolfson, National Weather Service)

Figure 6.3a , Figure 6.3b : Pressure as the weight of air

Figure 6.4 : A mercury barometer

Figure 6.5 : Range of measured sea-level pressures on Earth

Figure 6.8 : Air columns over low and high elevations

Figure 6.9 : Various of pressure with altitude

Figure 6.10a , Figure 6.10b : Surface pressure compared to sea-level pressure (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.11 : "Correcting" station pressure to sea-level pressure

Figure 6.12a , Figure 6.12b : Station models and isobars

Figure 6.13 : Sea-level pressure analysis of record-setting high-pressure system (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.14 : Troughs and ridges

Figure 6.15 : Water motions demonstrate the pressure gradient force

Figure 6.16 : Average sea-level pressure across the globe (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.17 : Pressure gradient force and gravity balance

Figure 6.19 : Fast-moving objects have great momentum (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 6.20 : Creation of mechanical eddies

Figure 6.21 : Centrifugal force at the amusement park

Figure 6.22 : Linear speed of rotation varies with latitude

Figure 6.23a , Figure 6.23b , Figure 6.23c : Lessons learned on a football field can be applied to the atmosphere

Figure 6.24 : The Coriolis force at work on north-south movement

Figure 6.25 : The Coriolis force at work on east-west movement

Figure 6.26a , Figure 6.26b : Sea-level pressure analysis and satellite imagery of Hurricanes Frances and Ivan, September 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.27 : Air flow around surface highs and lows

Figure 6.29 : Affect of surface friction on winds

Figure 6.30 : Implications of surface convergence and divergence to vertical motions

Figure 6.31 : Precipitation correlation with pressure systems

Figure 6.32 : A surface analysis (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.33a , Figure 6.33b : Satellite image of Hurricane Ivan (courtesy of NOAA), and sea-level pressure trace at Mobile, AL around landfall

Figure 6.34 : High pressure in an mT air mass (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 6.35 : Fronts and patterns of sea-level pressure

Figure 6.36 : Cold front in a trough of low pressure

Figure 6.37 : Finding fronts on a weather map

Chapter 7: Upper-air Patterns of Pressure and Wind

Figure 7.1 : Upper-air and surface link

Figure 7.2a ,Figure 7.2b : Schematic views of constant pressure surfaces

Figure 7.3a : Satellite image of the Big Island of Hawaii (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 7.4 : A crumpled throw rug

Figure 7.5 : Vertical spacing of mandatory pressure levels is related to density changes with height

Figure 7.6 : A 500-mb constant pressure map (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.7 : Comparing cold and warm columns of air

Figure 7.8 : A balloon experiment

Figure 7.9 : Average 500-mb height dependence on latitude

Figure 7.10a ,Figure 7.10b , Figure 7.10c : Upper-level heights relation to temperature

Figure 7.11a ,Figure 7.11b : Meridional and zonal 500-mb patterns (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.12a ,Figure 7.12b : Examples of 850-mb and 300-mb charts (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.13 : Analyzed mandatory pressure level chart (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.14a ,Figure 7.14b : Comparison of 300-mb heights and winds (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.15a , Figure 7.15b : Comparing the relationship between height and pressure in warm and cold columns

Figure 7.16a ,Figure 7.16b ,Figure 7.16c : Troughs and ridges on height and pressure surfaces

Figure 7.17a ,Figure 7.17b ,Figure 7.17c ,Figure 7.17d : A parcel reaches geostrophic balance

Figure 7.18 : Evolution of velocity and Coriolis vectors as parcel reaches geostrophic balance

Figure 7.19a , Figure 7.19b , Figure 7.19c : Weather data at the surface, 850-mb, and 500-mb

Figure 7.20 : Buys-Ballot's Law

Figure 7.22 : 300-mb winds near Mt. Everest on May 20, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.23 : Pressure gradient force at high altitudes

Figure 7.24 : Large and small height gradients at 500 mb (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.25a ,Figure 7.25b : Relationship between 500-mb winds, heights and isotachs

Figure 7.26 : 250-mb heights and winds

Figure 7.27 : Vertical profile of winds shows a peak around 250 mb

Figure 7.28a , Figure 7.28b : North-south temperature contrasts lead to westerly winds increasing with altitude

Figure 7.29 : Temperatures stop decreasing with altitude at the tropopause, then begin to increase with altitude

Figure 7.30 : Westerly winds slow above tropopause level

Figure 7.31 : Temperatures at the 150-mb level (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.32 : Winds at 300 mb track the jet stream (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.33a ,Figure 7.33b : Comparison of winter and summer jet streams (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.34a , Figure 7.34b : The jet stream and 250-mb heights (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.35a , Figure 7.35b : Locating the mid-latitude jet stream with respect to surface fronts (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.36b ,Figure 7.36c: Confluence at jet stream level (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.37 : Example of a zonal flow (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.38a ,Figure 7.38b : A high-amplitude flow, with associated temperature anomalies (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.39 : 500-mb analysis of a blocking high (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 7.40 : A rock in a stream acts as a block to the water

Figure 7.41a : Vertical wind shear can lead to clear air turbulence

Chapter 8: The Role of Stability in Weather

Figure 8.1 : Launch of a weather balloon and radiosonde (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 8.2 : NASA's Ultra-Long Duration balloon (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.3 : Balance between the pressure gradient force and gravity

Figure 8.4 : Average vertical velocity at 700 mb on December 28, 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 8.6 : Buoyancy experiment in a bathtub

Figure 8.7 : Ascending parcels continue to rise as long as they are warmer than the environment

Figure 8.8 : Parcels in stable and unstable equilbria

Figure 8.10 : Rising unsaturated parcels cool at about 10 degrees C per kilometer

Figure 8.11 : A graphical way to represent vertical temperature variations

Figure 8.12 : The lifting condensation level

Figure 8.13 : The energy staircase

Figure 8.14a , Figure 8.14b : Tracking the vertical changes in temperature in a rising parcel of air

Figure 8.15 : A conditionally unstable layer

Figure 8.16 : Radar cross section through Hurricane Bonnie (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.17 : Nocturnal inversion on a vertical temperature diagram

Figure 8.19 : NASA's ER-2 aircraft (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.20 : Simulation of dispersion of ground fog

Figure 8.21 : Superadiabatic lapse rate

Figure 8.22 : Meteogram showing evaporation cooling

Figure 8.23 : Cooling aloft destabilizes the troposphere

Figure 8.24a , Figure 8.24b : Cold air aloft generates thunderstorms

Figure 8.25 : Thunderstorms off California on December 28, 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 8.26 : Formation of a subsidence inversion

Figure 8.27 : How a subsidence inversion forms

Figure 8.28a : "Pancake" cumulus

Figure 8.30 : Supercooled water experiment

Figure 8.31 : Computer simulation of the lattice structure of ice

Figure 8.32a , Figure 8.32b , Figure 8.32c : The Bergeron-Findeisen process

Figure 8.34a : Bergeron-Findeisen in action, on a car windshield

Figure 8.35 : Three different kinds of snow crystals

Figure 8.38a , Figure 8.38b , Figure 8.39c : Stratiform clouds form by overrunning at a warm front (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 8.44 : A wintertime cumulonimbus cloud with an anvil produced a snow squall with thunder

Figure 8.48a, Figure 8.48b: Color-enhanced infrared images of Tropical Storm Noel, October 31-November 1, 2007(courtesy of NOAA and NRL)

Figure 8.49 : Smoke plume from Mount Etna (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 8.51 : Comparison of morning and nighttime behavior of a smoke plume

Figure 8.52a , Figure 8.52b : Mountain wave clouds (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 8.53 : Altocumulus castellanous clouds

Figure 8.54 : Sunshine mixes the lower troposphere

Chapter 9: Thunderstorms

Figure 9.1 : Satellite image shows "numerous" thunderstorms (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.2a , Figure 9.2b : Lightning display and radar reflectivity (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.4 : Benjamin Franklin flies a kite (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.5 : A simple model of charge separation in a cumulonimbus cloud

Figure 9.6 : Charge distribution inside a thunderstorm: another possibility

Figure 9.8 : Lightning originating in the upper reaches of a thunderstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.9 : A red sprite (courtesy Dave Sentman, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska-Fairbanks)

Figure 9.10 : Evidence of lightning on Saturn (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.11 : Computing the distance between an observer and a lightning bolt

Figure 9.12 : Lightning fatalities by state, 1997-2006 (courtesy Ronald L. Holle, Holle Meteorology and Photography)

Figure 9.13 : Hair may stand on end before a lightning strike (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.14 : Lightning strikes the Empire State Building (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.15 : Finding the Level of Free Convection

Figure 9.16 : Heating destabilizes the low levels

Figure 9.17b , Figure 9.17c , Figure 9.17d : Images from an Oklahoma ice storm

Figure 9.18 : Climatology of worldwide lightning strikes (courtesy of NASA MSFC)

Figure 9.20 : Formation of the sea breeze

Figure 9.21 : Weather implications of the sea-breeze front

Figure 9.22 : Satellite view of sea-breeze thunderstorms (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.23 : Converging sea-breeze fronts

Figure 9.24 : Elevated surfaces as sources of uneven heating

Figure 9.25a , Figure 9.25b , Figure 9.25c : Sequence of satellite images shows elevated convection (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.26 : The low-level environment's affect on cloud base height

Figure 9.27 : Satellite image showing Western wildfires (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.28 : Single-cell thunderstorms on radar (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.29a , Figure 9.29b : Vertical wind profiles for different thunderstorm modes

Figure 9.30a , Figure 9.30b : Radar reflectivity and storm reports from severe weather outbreak of February 5-6, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.31 : Role of entrainment in the growth of cumulus clouds

Figure 9.32a , Figure 9.32b , Figure 9.32c : Stages in life of single-cell thunderstorm

Figure 9.33 : A glaciated anvil atop a thunderstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.35 : Gust front behavior

Figure 9.37a , Figure 9.37b , Figure 9.37c : Evolution of a multicell thunderstorm

Figure 9.38a , Figure 9.38b : Gust fronts on radar (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.40 : Plan view of a classic supercell thunderstorm

Figure 9.41a , Figure 9.41b : Updrafts and downdrafts interact with wind shear in a supercell

Figure 9.42a , Figure 9.42b : Example of flash flooding (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 9.43a , Figure 9.43b : Tropical Storm Fay (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.44a , Figure 9.44b : Setup for the 1976 Big Thompson Flood (courtesy of John Asztalos)

Figure 9.45a , Figure 9.45b : Flash flooding scenario

Figure 9.46 : Average number of days per year with hail of at least 3/4" diameter (courtesy of Harold Brooks, National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 9.47 : Radar cross section of a hail-producing thunderstorm (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.48 : Damage from hail to the space shuttle (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 9.49 : Largest hailstone on record (courtesy of National Weather Service, Hastings, NE)

Figure 9.50 : Schematic of a microburst

Figure 9.51 : A WSR-88D radar damaged by microburst winds (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 9.52a , Figure 9.52b , Figure 9.52c : Microburst near Phoenix (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 9.53 : A microburst's threat to aviation

Chapter 10: Tropical Weather, Part I: Patterns of Wind, Water and Weather

Figure 10.1 : The tropics and subtropics occupy half the earth's surface

Figure 10.2 : Annual variation of incoming solar and outgoing infrared radiation

Figure 10.3 : Average annual air temperatures (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.4 : Average monthly high temperatures in St. Louis, MO and Bhopal, India

Figure 10.5a , Figure 10.5b : Illustration of semidiurnal pressure tide

Figure 10.6 : Sea-surface temperature anomalies during the 1997 El Nino (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.7 : Wind rose from Rapid City, SD (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 10.8 : Wind rose from an ocean buoy in tropical Pacific just south of the equator

Figure 10.9 : Average August rainfall rates (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.10 : Halley's Comet (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.11 : Hadley's model of the general circulation

Figure 10.12 : Idealized cross section of the Hadley cells

Figure 10.13 : A tropical weather map (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.14 : The ITCZ often is fingerprinted with a necklace of clouds over the oceans in tropical regions (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.16 : Average position of the ITCZ in January and July (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.17 : Average monthly rainfall at Fortaleza, Brazil shows a marked wet and dry season

Figure 10.18 : Average annual sea-level pressure around the globe (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.19 : Poleward flowing air at high altitudes in the tropics hits a "roadblock" around 30 degrees latitude

Figure 10.20 : Average positions of Atlantic subtropical high during winter and summer

Figure 10.21 : Annual average precipitation rates (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.22 : Major deserts of the world

Figure 10.23 : Average wind direction during August 2004 over the tropical Pacific (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.24 : Snow caps on Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.25 : Average sea-level pressure over the Pacific in August 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.26 : Explaining the speed of the the trade winds

Figure 10.27 : Trade-wind cumulus (courtesy of NOAA's Hurricane Research Division)

Figure 10.28 : Average wind speeds and directions at 200 mb over Asia and the western Pacific (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.29 : A typical trajectory of a parcel moving poleward in the upper branch of the Hadley Cell during Northern Hemisphere winter

Figure 10.30a , Figure 10.30b : Average wind speeds and directions at 200 mb in winter and summer (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.31 : Average surface air temperature during June, July and August (courtesy of the NOAA)

Figure 10.32 : Average monthly maximum temperatures at several Indian cities

Figure 10.33 : The summer monsoon is a gigantic sea breeze

Figure 10.34 : Running tally of average rainfall at three Indian cities

Figure 10.35 : Average start and end dates of the Indian summer monsoon

Figure 10.36 : Average wind directions and speeds at 850 mb during June over Indian Ocean (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.37 : Satellite-based radar estimates, June 10-15, 2004, near India (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.38 : Thunderstorms erupt in Arizona in July 2001 during the summer monsoon (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.39 : Sea-surface heights and temperatures across the tropical Pacific, January 1997 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.40 : The Ekman spiral

Figure 10.41 : The Ekman transport

Figure 10.42 : Average annual wind directions and speeds across the tropical Pacific (courtesy of the NOAA)

Figure 10.43 : Annual average sea-surface temperatures across the tropical Pacific (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.44 : Sea-surface heights and temperatures across the tropical Pacific, November 1997 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.45 : The Walker Circulation during El Nino and non-El Nino conditions

Figure 10.46 : Smoke from Indonesian wildfires, measured by a satellite (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 10.47 : Height anomalies at 200 mb from January to March, 1998 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.48a , Figure 10.48b : Climatological average 200-mb wind directions and speeds from January-March, and from January-March 1998 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.49 : Typical large-scale temperature and precipitation anomalies during an El Nino (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.50a , Figure 10.50b : Teleconnections in temperature in precipitation in the U.S. during a La Nina (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 10.51 : Closed cell and open cell convection over the Atlantic Ocean

Chapter 11: Tropical Weather, Part II: Hurricanes

Figure 11.1 : Visible satellite image of rare South Atlantic hurricane, March 2004 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.2a , Figure 11.2b : Radar reflectivity and velocity of Hurricane Ike at landfall, September 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.3 : Coastline before and after Hurricane Ike (courtesy of USGS)

Figure 11.4a , Figure 11.4b : Similarities between a spiral galaxy and a hurricane (Ivan, 2004) (courtesy of NASA/NOAA)

Figure 11.5 : Breeding grounds for tropical cyclones

Figure 11.6 : Visible satellite images of Typhoons Parma and Ketsana, October 2003 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.7 : Visible satellite image of Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu in June 2007 (courtesy of MODIS Rapid Response Project at NASA/GSFC)

Figure 11.8 : Average sea-surface temperatures in the Atlantic, June-November (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.9 : Climatological hurricane frequency by day

Figure 11.10 : Average September sea-surface temperatures in the Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.11 : Radar image of Hurricane Charley, August 2004 (courtesy of the National Weather Service)

Figure 11.12 : Sea-surface temperatures in the Gulf, August 12, 2004, before Charley's landfall (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.13 : Visible satellite image of Hurricane Nora, September 1997 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.14 : Sea-surface temperature decreases related to passage of Hurricane Nora, October 1, 1997 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.15 : Vertical motions around the eye of a hurricane

Figure 11.16 : Color-enhanced infrared image of Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu, June 2007 (courtesy of NOAA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.17 : Track of Hurricane Andrew, August 1992 (courtesy of Wikipedia)

Figure 11.18a , Figure 11.18b : Color-enhanced water vapor images of Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu in June, 2007 (courtesy of the Naval Research Laboratory and NOAA)

Figure 11.19 : Low-level circulation of Tropical Storm Nicholas exposed, October 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.20a & b , Figure 11.20c : 200-mb and 850-mb winds in the vicinity of Tropical Storm Nicholas, and the 850-200 mb shear (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.21 : Climatology average wind shear ove the Atlantic, August 15 to October 15 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.22 : Tropical cyclone frequency in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (courtesy of Chris Cantrell, Joint Typhoon Warning Center)

Figure 11.23 : Visible satellite image and winds of Typhoon Vamei, which formed close to the equator in December 2001 (courtesy of CRISP and National University of Singapore)

Figure 11.24a , Figure 11.24b : Infrared satellite images follow Ivan across the Atlantic, September 2004 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.25 : Average 600-mb winds during August, showing the Middle Level African Easterly Jet (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.26 : How easterly waves form on the cyclonic shear side of the Middle Level African Easterly Jet

Figure 11.27 : Typical monsoon areas

Figure 11.28 : Average surface temperature pattern in North Africa in August (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.29 : Average 600-mb heights during August over Africa and the eastern Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.30 : Average 850-200 mb wind shear, February to April, over South America and the South Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.31 : Average sea-surface temperature, February to April, in the South Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.32a , Figure 11.32b : 500-mb analyses showing conditions that helped form the unusual March 2004 South Atlantic hurricane (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.33 : Average 850-200 mb wind shear, March 25-26, 2004, near South America (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.34 : Tropical Storm Ana, April 2003 (courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University, and NASA)

Figure 11.35 : Air spiraling into a hurricane speeds up to conserve angular momentum

Figure 11.36 : Track of Hurricane Katrina, August 2005 (courtesy of Wikipedia)

Figure 11.37 : A breached levee in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, August 2005 (courtesy of FEMA)

Figure 11.38a , Figure 11.38b : Color-enhanced infrared satellite images of T.D. 12 and Hurricane Katrina, August 2005 (courtesy of NOAA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.39 : Hot towers around the eye of Hurricane Bonnie, August 1998 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 11.40 : Observed surface winds around Hurricane Katrina, August 29, 2005 (courtesy of Hurricane Research Division of NOAA)

Figure 11.41 : The right front quadrant of a hurricane

Figure 11.42a ,Figure 11.42b : The eye of Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NOAA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.43 : Balance of forces in the eye wall

Figure 11.44 : Wind speed with altitude in the eye wall (adapted from Franklin et.al., 2003, V18, Weather and Forecasting)

Figure 11.45 : A dropsonde (courtesy of the U.S. Air Force)

Figure 11.46a ,Figure 11.46b : Hurricane Wilma (courtesy of Wikipedia, NOAA, and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.47a ,Figure 11.47b : Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NASA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.48 : The stadium effect

Figure 11.49 : The slope of constant pressure surface in the eye and eye wall

Figure 11.50 : Radar image of Ivan making landfall, September 16, 2004 (courtesy of WSI Corporation)

Figure 11.51 : Track of Hurricane Ike (courtesy of Wikipedia)

Figure 11.52 : Track of Hurricane Floyd (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.53 : Subtropical high influences track of Hurricane Ike (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.54 : Track of Tropical Storm Fay (courtesy of Wikipedia)

Figure 11.55 : Rainfall from Tropical Storm Fay (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.56a ,Figure 11.56b : Satellite images of Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NASA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.57 : Damage from Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.58 : Close-up of track of Hurricane Katrina

Figure 11.59 : Color-enhanced infrared satellite image of Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Sidr in November 2007 (courtesy of the Naval Research Laboratory)

Figure 11.60 : Damage from Hurricane Andrew (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.61 : Radar reflectivity and tornado watch associated with Hurricane Ike at landfall (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 11.62 : SLOSH model prediction of the storm surge from Hurricane Katrina (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.63 : Average annual track errors of National Hurricane Center Forecasts of Tropical Storms and Hurricanes, 1970-2007 (courtesy of National Hurricane Center)

Figure 11.64 : The "cone of uncertainty" in a hurricane track forecast (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 11.65a ,Figure 11.65b : Satellite images of Hurricane Wilma(courtesy of NASA and the Naval Research Laboratory)

Chapter 12: Mid-Latitude I: Linking Surface and Upper-Air Patterns

Figure 12.2 : Weather map for the morning of January 19, 1977 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 12.3 : Comparison of circulation around weak and strong surface low-pressure systems

Figure 12.4a ,Figure 12.4b : Highs and lows require compensating divergence/convergence at upper levels

Figure 12.5a , Figure 12.5b : Upper level conditions favorable for surface high and low pressure

Figure 12.6 : The local vertical, and spin imparted about the local vertical by the earth's rotation

Figure 12.8 : Air parcles around highs and lows spin about a local vertical axis

Figure 12.10 : Ice skaters control their rate of spin by pulling in and spreading out their arms

Figure 12.11a , Figure 12.11b : How parcels acquire curvature and shear vorticity

Figure 12.12a , Figure 12.12b : Areas of upper-level convergence and divergence with respect to upper-level vorticity maxima and minima

Figure 12.13 : Locations of surface highs and lows with respect to areas of upper-level divergence and convergence

Figure 12.15 : Definition of wavelength

Figure 12.16 : Short and long wave troughs and ridges

Figure 12.17a , Figure 12.17b : Finding a short wave in a long wave

Figure 12.18 : Track of the "Storm of the Century" - March 12-14, 1993

Figure 12.19 : 300-mb and surface analyses, 00Z March 14, 1993

Figure 12.20 : Isotachs representing a jet streak at 300 mb, with exit and entrance regions

Figure 12.21a , Figure 12.21b , Figure 12.21c : Areas of vorticity and upper-level convergence and divergence associated with a jet streak

Figure 12.22 : Cyclonically and anticyclonically curved jet streaks (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 12.23 : Patterns of upward and downward motion associated with a cyclonically curved jet streak

Figure 12.24a , Figure 12.24b : Storm reports and 300-mb pattern associated with the tornado outbreak of April 26, 1991 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 12.25 : Stronger lows tend to form with curvier upper-air patterns

Chapter 13: Mid-Latitude II: The Cyclone Model

Figure 13.1 : Breeding grounds and spark for a surface low-pressure area

Figure 13.2a , Figure 13.2b : Plan and cross-section view of a typical mid-latitude low and its cold and warm fronts

Figure 13.3a, Figure 13.3b , Figure 13.3c : Self-development process of a low

Figure 13.4 : Upper-level divergence and temperature advections help control surface pressure tendencies

Figure 13.5 : Upper-level trough changes its orientation as self-development proceeds

Figure 13.6 : Cyclone in occlusion stage

Figure 13.7ab ,Figure 13.7cd , Figure 13.7e : Life cycle of a mid-latitude low

Figure 13.8a ,Figure 13.8b : Cirrus clouds

Figure 13.10a , Figure 13.10b , Figure 13.10c : Conveyor belts of a mid-latitude cyclone

Figure 13.11a , Figure 13.11ab : Convection develops along and ahead of a cold front, June 6, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 13.12a , Figure 13.12b : Cold front placement with regard to pressure and temperature patterns

Figure 13.13 : A cold front acting as an anafront

Figure 13.14 : Satellite image of two mature mid-latitude cyclones over the North Pacific (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 13.15a ,Figure 13.15b : The dry conveyor belt

Figure 13.16 : Visible satellite image of Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude cyclone shows coils of dry air wrapping toward the center (courtesy of NASA)

Chapter 14: Mid-Latitude III: Spawning Severe Weather

Figure 14.1 : Destruction from a powerful tornado near Oklahoma City on May 3, 1999 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Norman, OK)

Figure 14.2a ,Figure 14.2b : Aerial and ground view along the path of the May 3, 1999 tornado near Oklahoma City (courtesy of National Weather Service, and Dan Miller, NOAA)

Figure 14.3 : Tornado near Stecker, OK, May 3, 1999 (courtesy of National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 14.4 : Mesoscale convective system on radar reflectivity (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.5 : Discrete supercell thunderstorms on radar reflectivity at 2330Z on February 18, 2009 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.6a , Figure 14.6b : Synoptic set-up at the surface on February 18, 2009 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.7 : Sounding at 18Z on February 18, 2009, from Birmingham, AL

Figure 14.8 : Estimating CAPE on a sounding

Figure 14.9 : An environment with large vertical wind shear

Figure 14.10a , Figure 14.10b : Surface map and radar reflectivity at 09Z on February 19, 2009 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.11a , Figure 14.11b : Dry line thunderstorms (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.12a , Figure 14.12b : Isolated thunderstorm merge to form an MCS (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.13 : A nocturnal low-level jet fuels an MCS

Figure 14.14 : Wind profiler data shows a low-level jet (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.15 : Formation of a low-level jet

Figure 14.16 : Color-enhanced infrared image of an MCC (courtesy of NOAA and University of Wisconsin/CIMSS)

Figure 14.17 : Synoptic set-up for the formation of an MCC

Figure 14.18a , Figure 14.18b , Figure 14.18c , Figure 14.18d : Various images illustrating an MCC (courtesy of NOAA and University of Wisconsin/CIMSS)

Figure 14.19 : Cross section of an MCC

Figure 14.20a, Figure 14.20b: Squall line on May 2, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.21a, Figure 14.21b: Formation locations of squall lines

Figure 14.22: Cold pool associated with a squall line

Figure 14.24: Schematic evolution of a bow echo on radar reflectivity

Figure 14.25: Schematic radar reflectivity signature of a derecho

Figure 14.26a, Figure 14.26b: A derecho on radar reflectivity, with corresponding severe weather reports (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.27a, Figure 14.27b: Typical synoptic setup for formation of warm season derechoes

Figure 14.28a, Figure 14.28b: Radar reflectivity of semi-discrete supercells (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.29 : 12Z surface analysis on April 10, 2009 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 14.30 : Larko's Triangle

Figure 14.31 : Synoptic setup on May 3, 1999

Figure 14.32 : Multiple severe weather watches on May 25, 2008 (courtesy of NOAA)

Chapter 15: A Closer Look at Tornadoes

Figure 15.3 : Path of the Hallam, NE tornado of May 22, 2004 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Omaha, NE)

Figure 15.4 : Tornado Alley

Figure 15.5 : Average annual tornadoes per 10,000 square miles, 1998-2007 (courtesy of Dr. Greg Forbes and the National Weather Service)

Figure 15.6 : Tornado prone areas of the world

Figure 15.7 : Average reported tornadoes per month in the U.S. for the period 1999-2008 (courtesy of Dr. Greg Forbes and the National Weather Service)

Figure 15.8 : Storm-relative flow through a supercell thunderstorm

Figure 15.9 : Formation of a "horizontal roll"

Figure 15.11 : Schematic of a mesocyclone

Figure 15.12 : Concentration of spin as a column contracts

Figure 15.15 : Idealized plan view of precipitation shield of a fully developed supercell thunderstorm

Figure 15.16a , Figure 15.16b : Radar imagery of a tornadic thunderstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 15.17a , Figure 15.17b : Doppler radar imagery of tornadic supercell near Oklahoma City on May 3, 1999, in reflectivity and velocity modes (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.18 : A Doppler on Wheels (courtesy of Paul Markowski)

Figure 15.19a , Figure 15.19b : Plan view and photograph of a supercell thunderstorm, showing rear-flank and forward-flank downdrafts

Figure 15.24 : Instrument package called TOTO used in the 1980s (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 15.26 : A multiple vortex tornado (courtesy of National Severe Storms Laboratory)

Figure 15.27 : Cycloid pattern marks the damage path of some multiple vortex tornadoes (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 15.28 : EF5 damage in Parkersburg, IA, on May 25, 2008 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Des Moines, IA)

Figure 15.29 : Survey of EF5 tornado in Iowa on May 25, 2008 (courtesy of National Weather Service, Des Moines, IA)

Figure 15.30 : F5 and EF5 tornadoes, 1950-2008 (courtesy of Storm Prediction Center)

Figure 15.31 : Damage from the 1925 Tri-State tornado (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 15.32 : Reported U.S. tornadoes by year, 1950-2008

Figure 15.33 : Weak spots on a house in a tornado

Figure 15.34 : May 31, 1985 tornado tracks (courtesy of Pennsylvania State Climatologist)

Figure 15.37a , Figure 15.37b : Evidence of dust devils on Mars (courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science System)

Figure 15.38 : Waterspout off the Florida Keys (courtesy of NOAA Photo Library, Dr. Joseph Golden)

Figure 15.39 : A fire whirl (courtesy of United States Marine Corps)

Chapter 16: Mid-Latitude IV: Winter Weather

Figure 16.3a , Figure 16.3b : Two examples of graupel, or snow pellets

Figure 16.4a ,Figure 16.4b , Figure 16.4c : Vertical temperature profiles for sleet and freezing rain

Figure 16.5a ,Figure 16.5b : Setup for an historic ice storm

Figure 16.6 : Precipitation distribution around a classic cold-season mid-latitude cyclone

Figure 16.7 : A computer prediction of 1000-500 mb thickness (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.8 : Two common winter jet stream patterns across North America

Figure 16.9 : Climatological storm tracks over the U.S.

Figure 16.10 : Visible satellite image of intensifying low on February 12, 2006 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.11 : Snowfall from the Blizzard of 2006 (courtesy of National Climatic Data Center)

Figure 16.12 : Surface analysis at 12Z on February 12, 2006 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.13a , Figure 16.13b , Figure 16.13c , Figure 16.13d : Various analyses at 12Z on February 11, 2006 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.14a , Figure 16.14b , Figure 16.14c : Various analyses at 12Z on February 12, 2006 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.15a , Figure 16.15b : Cold-air damming setup (courtesy of NOAA and Ray Sterner)

Figure 16.16a , Figure 16.16b : Setup for an ice storm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.18 : The Tug Hill Plateau (map courtesy of Ray Sterner, Johns Hopkins University)

Figure 16.19 : Visible satellite image shows multiple bands of lake-effect snow (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 16.20 : In May, the Great Lakes are islands of stability (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.22 : A single band of lake-effect snow on radar (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.24 : Topography enhances lake-effect snow

Figure 16.25 : Discrete bands of lake-effect snow

Figure 16.26 : Radar reflectivity show Buffalo, NY, pounded by lake-effect snow (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.27 : Radar reflectivity of ocean-effect snow (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.28a , Figure 16.28b : Large snowfall gradients with the snowstorm of December 30, 2000 (courtesy of National Weather Service)

Figure 16.29 : Visible satellite image captures narrow swath of snow in the mid-Atlantic (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.30

Figure 16.31 : Results of a devastating 1888 ice storm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.32 : Ice build-up on an aircraft's wings (courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration)

Figure 16.33 : Checking the structure and strength of a deep snowpack in the Cascades (courtesy of Tim Kirk, USDA Forest Service)

Figure 16.34 : Track of the Superstorm of March 1993

Figure 16.35a , Figure 16.35b : Evolution of jet stream pattern prior to Superstorm of March 1993 (courtesy of Climate Diagnostics Center)

Figure 16.36 : Enhanced infrared satellite image of the March 1993 Superstorm (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.37 : Lightning illuminates the squall line of tornadic thunderstorms that accompanied the March 1993 Superstorm through Florida (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 16.38 : Sea-level pressure pattern shows rapid intensification of the March 1993 Superstorm

Figure 16.39 : Snowfall from the March 1993 Superstorm

Chapter 18: The Human Impact on Weather and Climate

Figure 18.1a , Figure 18.1b : Earth from space, at night (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.3 : Satellite view of soot-darkened snow near Troisk, in Siberia (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.4 : The Palmer Z-Index for June 1988 shows widespread drought (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.5a ,Figure 18.5b : The Mauna Loa observatory, and the Keeling curve (courtesy of Wikipedia and NOAA)

Figure 18.6a , Figure 18.6b : Images from the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (courtesy of Mark Twickler, University of New Hampshire, and NOAA)

Figure 18.7 : Annual global carbon emissions from fossil-fule burning (data from http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/meth_reg.html)

Figure 18.8 : Active fires in western Africa in December 2008(courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.9 : Principle reservoirs of carbon and exchanges between reservoirs

Figure 18.10 : Time series of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide(courtesy of IPCC 2007)

Figure 18.11 : Average annual temperature trend in Central Park, New York City

Figure 18.12 : Average annual temperature trend in Albany, NY

Figure 18.13 : View of Central Park (courtesy of National Weather Service, Upton, NY)

Figure 18.14 : Surface weather observing stations, a global view

Figure 18.15 : Time series of global surface average air temperature and global average sea level (courtesy of IPCC 2007)

Figure 18.16: Sea ice observed by satellite on August 22, 2007 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.17 : The Planet Venus (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.18 : Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and average air temperatures, derived from Vostok ice core (data from Trends '93: A Compendium of Data on Global Change)

Figure 18.19 : Stratospheric aerosols visible from satellite imagery, after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo (courtesy of Pat McCormick, NASA)

Figure 18.20 : Global average temperature variations in the lower troposphere and lower stratosphere, surrounding the eruption of Mount Pinatubo (data from Trends '93: A Compendium of Data on Global Change)

Figure 18.21 : Ash plume from Mount Cleveland, May 2006 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.22 : Evolution of climate models (courtesy of IPCC 2007)

Figure 18.23 : Trend in October average ozone over Halley Bay, Antarctic (data from Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994)

Figure 18.24 : Average stratospheric ozone levels in October, 1979 to 1995 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.25 : Vertical concentrations of ozone in the atmosphere (courtesy of WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, 2006 Update)

Figure 18.26 : Annual releases of CFC-11 and CFC-12 (data from http://afeas.org/prodsales_download.html)

Figure 18.27 : Steps that lead to ozone destruction by CFCs

Figure 18.28 : Polar stratospheric clouds (courtesy of Lamont Poole, NASA)

Figure 18.29 : Measurements of ozone and chlorine monoxide inside and outside the ozone hole (data from Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994)

Figure 18.30 : Stratospheric ozone levels on September 24, 2006 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.31 : Trends in stratospheric ozone from 1980 to 2004, as a function of latitude (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.32 : Average lower stratospheric temperature since 1958 (data from http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/temp/angell/data.html)

Figure 18.33 : The Ultraviolet (UV) Index

Figure 18.34 : A wall of dust approaches a Kansas town in 1935 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.35 : Haze from biomass burning over the Amazon in September 2005 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.36a ,Figure 18.36 : Snowcover in the wake of the President's Day snowstorm of 2003 (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.37 : Changes in surface of the Amazon rain forest from 2001 to 2006 (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.38 : The urban heat island of Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN, viewed on satellite imagery (courtesy of NOAA)

Figure 18.39 : High-resolution infrared satellite image of downtown Atlanta, GA (courtesy of NASA)

Figure 18.40 : Distribution of cloud-to-ground lightning strikes around Houston, TX, from 1989 to 2001 (courtesy of the Lightning Project at Texas A&M University)